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Non renewable energy

Deposits of oil-sand that occur near the surface less than about 75 m deep are mined in open pits strip-mined using immense shovels, which along with the trucks they load, are the largest such machines in the world. The raw oil-sand is processed using heat and steam to yield a viscous bitumen its room-temperature consistency is similar to molasses. The bitumen is modified with light hydrocarbon fluids to reduce its viscosity so that it can flow and be transported in a pipeline. The typical yield from mined oil sand is about 1 t of synthetic petroleum from 15 t of raw resource. The remainder, along with massive quantities of tailings processed sand and clay , is back-filled into the huge quarries.

Once the back-filled areas are filled, they will be contoured, top-dressed with previously stockpiled overburden gravel, sand, clay, and organic muck from muskeg , and planted to restore a land-use for pasture or as forest. The industry is required to rehabilitate mined sites to a level of productivity at least that of the pre-existing ecosystem. However, because this method was the first to be developed, about two-thirds of the recent production of oil-sand bitumen is from surface mines.

This is done in various ways, such as injecting steam into the deposit and then pumping the liquefied bitumen to the surface for further processing. Alternative extraction methods include the use of injected solvents to make the bitumen flowable so that it can be pumped to the surface. View of an open-pit mine for the extraction of bitumen-sand in northern Alberta.

Oil-sand mining and processing are energy-intensive activities that take place in huge industrial facilities. The energy to run machinery and processing facilities is obtained by burning fossil fuels, particularly natural gas, so the industry is a major emitter of greenhouse gases. The oil-sand industry has voluntarily committed to major investments in improved technology to decrease their intensity of energy use and CO2 emissions see Canadian Focus By decreasing the energy intensity of their operations, the industry will emit smaller amounts of greenhouse gases per tonne of bitumen and synthetic that they produce.

Nevertheless, because of the rapidly increasing scale of oil-sand operations in northern Alberta, there will be a large increase in the total amount of emissions. In fact, the growth of the oil-sand industry is responsible for most of the increase in Canadian emissions of greenhouse gases over the past decade or so. There are additional important environmental effects of the mining and processing of oil sands.

They include pollution of the atmosphere, groundwater, and surface water; the extensive destruction of natural habitats; and socio-economic disruptions of rural and Aboriginal communities. In the larger context, however, these damages must be viewed as an inevitable result of the apparent enthusiasm of Canadian society, politicians, and business interests to mine, sell, and use fossil-fuel resources at a rapid and non-sustainable rate.

This is happening because of the perceived importance of these activities to the domestic and export economies of Canada. Other materials that are mined in large quantities in Canada include asbestos, diamonds, gypsum, limestone, potash, salt, sulphur, aggregates, and peat. Except for diamonds, these materials have a smaller commodity value value per tonne than metals and fossil fuels. Global or Canadian shortages of these materials are not imminent. Asbestos refers to s a group of tough, fibrous, incombustible silicate minerals that are used to manufacture fireproof insulation, cement additives, brake linings, and many other products.

However, certain kinds of asbestos minerals have been linked to human health problems, particularly lung diseases. These hazards have greatly reduced the market for this otherwise useful mineral. As recently as about 0. Diamonds are relatively new to the mining scene in Canada, with the first major discoveries not made until the s. About Almost all mining occurs in the Northwest Territories, with some also in Ontario, and with exploration elsewhere on the Canadian Shield. Gypsum , a mineral composed of calcium sulphate, is used to manufacture plaster and wallboard for the construction industry. About 2. All gypsum mining occurs in Nova Scotia. Limestone is a rock composed of calcium carbonate. It is used to manufacture cement, as well as lime for making plaster.

In addition, some limestone, and the related metamorphic rock known as marble, is quarried for use as building stone and facings. About million tonnes of limestone were mined in It was used to make Another 1. Ontario, Quebec, and British Columbia have the largest cement industries, and Ontario the largest lime-making capacity. Potash is a rock formed from the mineral potash feldspar, and it is mined to manufacture potassium-containing fertilizer. Potash is mined in Saskatchewan and New Brunswick. Sulphur is manufactured from hydrogen sulphide obtained from sour-gas wells gas wells rich in H 2 S , from pollution-control scrubbers for SO 2 at metal smelters, and from deposits of native or elemental sulphur.

Sulphur is used in the chemical manufacturing industries and to make fertilizer. About 6. Aggregates include sand, gravel, and other materials that are mined for use in road construction and as fillers for concrete in the construction industry. Aggregates are a low-grade resource, having relatively little value per tonne. However, these materials may be available only in small quantities close to large cities, leading to local shortages. These materials are mined in all provinces and territories, at rates more or less related to the local construction activity. Peat is a sub-fossil material that has developed from dead plant biomass that is hundreds to thousands of years old. It accumulates in bog wetlands, where it becomes partially decomposed or humified.

Peat is sometimes dried and burned as a source of energy, an important use in Ireland, parts of northern Europe, and Russia. In Canada, however, peat is mined for use as a horticultural material and to produce absorbent hygienic products such as diapers and sanitary napkins. About 1. Most peat mining occurs in New Brunswick and Quebec. It is critical for any economy to have ready access to relatively inexpensive and accessible sources of energy for commercial, industrial, and household purposes.

The use of large amounts of energy is especially characteristic of developed countries, such as Canada. As has been examined previously, relatively wealthy, developed countries use much more energy on a per-capita basis than do poorer, less-developed countries. Ever since people achieved a mastery of fire, they have used fuels for subsistence purposes, that is, to cook food and to keep warm. Initially, locally collected wood and other plant biomass were the fuels used for those purposes. Perhaps only one-million people were alive when fire was first domesticated, and their per-capita energy use was small.

Consequently, biomass fuels were a renewable source of energy because the rate at which they were being harvested was much smaller than the rate at which new biomass was being produced by vegetation. In modern times, however, the human population is enormously larger than it was when fire was first put to work. Moreover, many countries now have intensely industrialized economies in which per-capita energy usage is extremely high.

The combination of population growth and increased per-capita energy use means that enormous amounts of energy are used in developed countries. The energy is needed to fuel industrial processes, to manufacture and run machines, to keep warm in winter and cool in summer, and to prepare food. Most industrial energy supplies are based on the use of non-renewable resources, although certain renewable sources may also be important.

For comprehensiveness, both non-renewable and renewable energy sources are discussed together in this section. Hydroelectric power, generated using the renewable energy of flowing water, is also important in some regions, including much of Canada. Any of the above sources can be harnessed to drive a turbine, which spins an electrical generator that converts the kinetic energy of motion into electrical energy. Solar energy can also generate electricity more directly, through photovoltaic technology see below. Electricity is one of the most important kinds of energy used in industrial societies, being widely distributed to industries and homes through a network of transmission lines. The following sections briefly describe how these various energy sources are used.

Electricity generated by sing nuclear fuel or by burning coal, oil, or natural gas uses non-renewable sources of energy. Coal, natural gas, petroleum, and their refined products can be combusted in power plants, where the potential energy of the fuel is harnessed to generate electricity. Fossil fuels are also combusted in the furnaces of many homes and larger buildings to provide warmth during colder times of the year. The burning of fossil fuels has many environmental drawbacks, including emissions of greenhouse gases, sulphur dioxide, and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Nuclear fuels contain unstable isotopes of the heavy elements uranium and plutonium U and Pu, respectively.

These can decay through a process known as fission, which produces lighter elements while releasing neutrons per nucleus and an enormous quantity of energy. The emitted neutrons may be absorbed by other atoms of U or Pu, causing them to also become unstable and undergo fission in a process known as a chain reaction. An uncontrolled chain reaction can result in a devastating nuclear explosion. In a nuclear reactor, however, the flux of neutrons is carefully regulated, which allows electricity to be produced safely and continuously. Nuclear reactions are fundamentally different from chemical reactions, in which atoms recombine into different compounds without changing their internal structure.

In nuclear fission, the atomic structure is fundamentally altered, and small amounts of matter are transformed into immense quantities of energy. Most of the energy liberated by nuclear fission is released as heat. In a nuclear power plant, some of the heat is used to boil water. The resulting steam drives a turbine, which generates electricity. Most nuclear-fuelled power plants are huge commercial reactors that produce electricity for industrial and residential use in large urban areas Image Smaller reactors are sometimes used to power military ships and submarines, or for research. Canada is a major player in uranium mining, most of which is exported; see Table Uranium produced by refining ore typically consists of about Various elements, most of which are also radioactive such as radon gas , are produced during fission reactions.

One of these, Pu, can also be used as a component of nuclear fuel in power plants. To obtain Pu for this purpose or for use in manufacturing nuclear weapons , spent fuel from nuclear generating stations is reprocessed. Other trans-uranium elements and any remaining U as well as non-fissile U can also be recovered and be used to manufacture new fuel for reactors. So-called fast-breeder reactors are designed to optimize the production of Pu which occurs when an atom of U absorbs a neutron to produce U, which then forms Pu by the emission of two beta electrons.

Although fast-breeder reactors have been demonstrated, they have not been commercially developed. However, there are limits to the process because the original quantity of U is eventually depleted. Therefore, both U and Pu should be considered to be non-renewable resources. A number of important environmental problems are associated with nuclear power. These include the small but real possibility of a catastrophic accident such as a meltdown of the reactor core, which can result in the release of large amounts of radioactive material into the environment as happened at the Chernobyl reactor in Ukraine in Nuclear reactions also produce extremely toxic, long-lived radioactive by-products such as plutonium , which must be safely managed for very long periods of time up to tens of thousands of years.

Fusion is another kind of energy-producing nuclear reaction. This process occurs when light nuclei are forced to combine under conditions of extremely high temperature millions of degrees and pressure, resulting in an enormous release of energy. Fusion usually involves the combining of hydrogen isotopes. One common fusion reaction involves two protons two hydrogen nuclei, 1 H fusing to form a deuterium nucleus composed of one proton and one neutron, 2 H , while also emitting a beta electron and an extremely large amount of energy. Fusion reactions occur naturally in the interior of the Sun and other stars, and they can also be initiated by exposing hydrogen to the enormous heat and pressure generated by a fission nuclear explosion, as occurs in a so-called hydrogen bomb.

However, nuclear technologists have not yet designed a system that can control fusion reactions to the degree necessary to generate electricity in an economic system. If this technology is ever developed, it would be an enormous benefit to industrial society. It would mean that virtually unlimited supplies of hydrogen fuel for fusion reactors could be extracted from the oceans, which would essentially eliminate constraints on energy supply. So far, however, controlled fusion reactions remain the stuff of science fiction.

Hydroelectric energy involves harnessing the kinetic energy of flowing water to drive a turbine that generates electricity. Because the energy of flowing water develops naturally through the hydrologic cycle, hydroelectricity is a renewable source of energy. There are two classes of technologies for the generation of hydroelectricity. All of these facilities have large reservoirs to store water. Although hydroelectric energy is renewable, important environmental impacts are associated with use of this technology. Changes in the amount and timing of water flow in rivers cause important ecological damages, as does the extensive flooding that occurs when a reservoir is developed see Chapter Hydroelectricity is a renewable source of energy.

This facility taps part of the flow of the Niagara River to generate electricity. Solar energy is continuously available during the day, and it can be tapped in various ways as a renewable source of energy. For example, it is stored by plants as they grow, so that their biomass can be harvested and combusted to release its potential energy see Biomass Energy, below. Solar energy can also be trapped within a glass-enclosed space. This happens because glass is transparent to visible wavelengths of sunlight, but not to most of the infrared. Solar energy can also be captured using black, highly absorptive surfaces to heat enclosed water or another fluid, which can then be distributed through piping to warm the interior of a building.

Solar energy can also be used to generate electricity using photovoltaic technology solar cells , which converts electromagnetic energy directly into electricity. In another technology, large, extremely reflective parabolic mirrors are used to focus sunlight onto an enclosed volume that contains water or another fluid, which becomes heated and generates steam that is used to drive a turbine to generate electricity. Geothermal energy can be tapped in the very few places where magma occurs relatively close to the surface and heats ground water. The boiling-hot water can be piped to the surface, where its heat content is used to warm buildings or to generate electricity.

In addition, the smaller energy content of slightly warmed geothermal water, which is present almost everywhere, can be accessed using heat-pump technology and used for space heating or to provide warm water for a manufacturing process. Geothermal energy is a renewable source as long as the supply of groundwater available to be heated within the ground is not depleted by excessive pumping. The kinetic energy of moving air masses, or wind energy, can be tapped and used in various ways.

A sailboat uses wind energy to move through the water, a windmill may be used to power the lifting of groundwater for use at the surface, and wind turbines are designed to generate electricity. Extensive wind-farms, consisting of arrays of highly efficient wind-driven turbines, have been constructed to generate electricity in consistently windy places in many parts of the world. Wind is increasingly being used as a source of commercial energy in Canada.

These wind turbines are operating near Tilbury in southwestern Ontario. Tidal cycles develop because of the gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon. In a few coastal places, tidal energy, the kinetic energy of tidal flows, can be harnessed to drive turbines and generate electricity. The Bay of Fundy in eastern Canada has enormous tides, which can exceed 16 m at the head of the bay. There is potential for much more tidal power development within the Bay of Fundy, and there are ongoing technological studies to install additional facilities at various places there.

The new installations will use tidal-powered turbines that are laid on the bottom or suspended in the water column, which avoids the environmental damage associated with a dam. Waves on the ocean surface are another manifestation of kinetic energy. Wave energy can be harnessed using specially designed buoys that generate electricity as they bob up and down, although this technology has not yet been developed on a commercial scale. The biomass of trees and other plants contains chemical potential energy. This biomass energy is actually solar energy that has been fixed through photosynthesis.

Peat, mined from bogs, is a kind of sub-fossil biomass. Like hydrocarbon fuels, biomass can be combusted to provide thermal energy for industrial purposes and to heat homes and larger buildings. Biomass can also be combusted in industrial-scale generating stations, usually to generate steam, which may be used to drive a turbine that generates electricity. Biomass can also be used to manufacture methanol, which can be used as a liquid fuel in vehicles and for other purposes. If the ecosystems from which biomass is harvested are managed to allow post-harvest regeneration of the vegetation, this source of energy can be considered a renewable resource. Peat, however, is always mined faster than the slow rate at which it accumulates in bogs and other wetlands, so it is not a renewable source of biomass energy.

The consumption of energy varies greatly among countries, largely depending on differences in their population and degree of development and industrialization Table In general, the per-capita use of primary energy this refers to fuels that are commercially traded, including renewables used to generate electricity in less-developed countries is less than about 1 toe per person per year. The use of traditional fuels is not reflected in the data of Table Countries that are developing rapidly are intermediate in their per-capita energy consumption, but their rates of energy use are increasing rapidly due to their industrialization.

While the use of energy has grown in these and other rapidly developing countries, their reliance on traditional fuels has dropped. This happens because traditional fuels are relatively bulky, smoky, and less convenient to use than electricity or fossil fuels, particularly in the urban environments where people are living in increasingly large numbers. In addition, the supplies of wood, charcoal, and other traditional fuels have become severely depleted in most rapidly developing countries, particularly near urban areas. Relatively developed countries have a high per-capita consumption of energy Table Consumption of Primary Energy in Selected Countries in Primary energy refers to fuels that are commercially traded, including renewables used to generate electricity.

National energy consumption mostly reflects the size of the economy of a country and its population, while per-capita use allows for a comparison of the lifestyle-intensity of average people. Source: Data from BP In terms of the total amounts of energy being used, the largest consumers are China 2, toe in , the United States 2, , and Russia toe. Canada is a highly developed country, but because of moderately-sized population and economy, it uses considerably less energy in total, about toe. The fact that per-capita energy use increased much less quickly than national consumption suggests that Canadians have become more efficient in their use of energy, especially during the more recent period.

Smaller automobiles, improved gas economy of vehicles, better insulation of residences and commercial buildings, and the use of more efficient industrial processes have all contributed to this increased efficiency. Nevertheless, although these gains of energy efficiency have been substantial, they have been more than offset by growth in the per-capita ownership of automobiles, consumer electronics, and other energy-demanding products and technologies. Also important have been large increases in industrial energy use associated with oil-sands developments in Alberta during the past several decades. These latter changes have caused the overall use of energy in Canada to increase substantially.

Trends in the Consumption of Primary Energy in Canada. Sources: Data from British Petroleum The intensive energy usage by Canadians reflects the high degree of industrialization of our national economy. Also significant is the relative affluence of average Canadians compared to the global average. Wealth allows people to lead a relatively luxurious lifestyle, with ready access to energy-consuming amenities such as motor vehicles, home appliances, space heating, and air conditioning. Canada is also a large country, so there are relatively large expenditures of energy for travelling. In addition, the cold winter climate means that people use a great deal of energy to keep warm.

As was examined in Chapter 12, a sustainable enterprise cannot be supported primarily by the mining of non-renewable sources of energy or other resources. Therefore, a sustainable economy must be based on the use of renewable sources of energy. However, most energy production in industrialized countries is based on non-renewable sources. Averaged across the relatively developed countries shown in Table With such a small reliance on non-renewable sources, it is clear that the major economies of the world are not close to having developed sustainable energy systems. Considering the rapid rate at which reserves of non-renewable energy resources are being depleted, one wonders how long the energy-intensive economies of developed nations can be maintained.

Energy Consumption in Selected Countries in Data are in units of tonnes of oil equivalent. There are also, of course, environmental impacts of the harvesting of trees and other kinds of biomass for use as fuel see Chapter Sources of Primary Energy in Canada. The data are for and are in units of tonnes of oil equivalent. Electricity produced by public or private utilities accounts for much of the energy used by industry, institutions, and residences in Canada. Non-renewable resources are always diminished as they are used. Although non-renewables can be used with great enthusiasm to achieve economic growth, they cannot be the basis of a sustainable economy. Only renewable resources can play that fundamental role. For instance, the life index of the global reserves of copper is only about 39 years, while that of nickel is 30 years, and zinc 19 years.

Among fossil fuels, the life index of the global reserves of petroleum is about 58 years, while that of natural gas is 55 years, and coal years. While it is true that continuing exploration will find additional reserves of these and other non-renewable resources, there are limits to those further discoveries. Because the reserves of all non-renewable resources are being depleted rapidly, both in Canada and around the world, the longer-term sustainability of the energy-intensive economies of developed countries, and the lifestyles of their citizens, is highly doubtful. Alberta Energy.

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